On June 10, 323 BCE Alexander the Great died. He may have gone underwater in a glass diving bell. He now seems to have become convinced of the reality of his own divinity and to have required its acceptance by others. A year later Philip divorced Olympias, and, after a quarrel at a feast held to celebrate his father’s new marriage, Alexander and his mother fled to Epirus, and Alexander later went to Illyria. The Persian plan to tempt Alexander across the river and kill him in the melee almost succeeded; but the Persian line broke, and Alexander’s victory was complete. In 338 B.C., Alexander saw the opportunity to prove his military worth and led a cavalry against the Sacred Band of Thebes—a supposedly unbeatable, select army made up entirely of male lovers—during the Battle of Chaeronea. The following spring at Babylon he received complimentary embassies from the Libyans and from the Bruttians, Etruscans, and Lucanians of Italy; but the story that embassies also came from more distant peoples, such as Carthaginians, Celts, Iberians, and even Romans, is a later invention. The other Greek states were cowed by this severity, and Alexander could afford to treat Athens leniently. to its conquest by Alexander the Great in 332 B.C.—ancient Egypt was the preeminent civilization in the Mediterranean world. He also displayed a deep interest in learning and encouraged the spread of Hellenistic culture. Bucephalus. Legends abound about what transpired at the oracle, but Alexander kept mum about the experience. If Plutarch’s figure of 120,000 men has any reality, however, it must include all kinds of auxiliary services, together with muleteers, camel drivers, medical corps, peddlers, entertainers, women, and children; the fighting strength perhaps stood at about 35,000. Almost immediately after his death in 323 BC, … Articles from Britannica Encyclopedias for elementary and high school students. Please refer to the appropriate style manual or other sources if you have any questions. Alexander the Great is a figure who is larger than life. Please select which sections you would like to print: While every effort has been made to follow citation style rules, there may be some discrepancies. Alexander the Great became king of Macedonia at age 19. It’s said Alexander was sad when he found Darius’s body and he gave him a royal burial. Peucestas, the new governor of Persis, gave this policy full support to flatter Alexander; but most Macedonians saw it as a threat to their own privileged position. Alexander couldn’t let the claim stand. All Parmenio’s adherents were now eliminated and men close to Alexander promoted. His conquest of Egypt had completed his control of the whole eastern Mediterranean coast. This army was to prove remarkable for its balanced combination of arms. The exploits of the Ten Thousand, Greek soldiers of fortune, and of Agesilaus of Sparta, in successfully campaigning in Persian territory had revealed the vulnerability of the Persian empire. Alexander the Great Alexander was born in July 356 B.C. On the site of modern Leninabad (Khojent) on the Jaxartes, he founded a city, Alexandria Eschate, “the farthest.” Meanwhile, Spitamenes had raised all Sogdiana in revolt behind him, bringing in the Massagetai, a people of the Shaka confederacy. Thanks to his insatiable urge for world supremacy, he started plans to conquer Arabia. Next, Alexander took over the Phoenician cities of Marathus and Aradus. Half the army with the baggage under Hephaestion and Perdiccas, both cavalry commanders, was sent through the Khyber Pass, while he himself led the rest, together with his siege train, through the hills to the north. From age 13 to 16 he was taught by the Greek philosopher Aristotle, who inspired his interest in philosophy, medicine, and scientific investigation. Greek thought drew no very decided line of demarcation between god and man, for legend offered more than one example of men who, by their achievements, acquired divine status. After Alexander. There he broke the opposition of the Scythian nomads by his use of catapults and, after defeating them in a battle on the north bank of the river, pursued them into the interior. Shortly afterward, however, Callisthenes was held to be privy to a conspiracy among the royal pages and was executed (or died in prison; accounts vary); resentment of this action alienated sympathy from Alexander within the Peripatetic school of philosophers, with which Callisthenes had close connections. After conquering Egypt, Alexander faced Darius and his massive troops at Gaugamela in October 331 B.C. His advance eastward was now rapid. "use strict";(function(){var insertion=document.getElementById("citation-access-date");var date=new Date().toLocaleDateString(undefined,{month:"long",day:"numeric",year:"numeric"});insertion.parentElement.replaceChild(document.createTextNode(date),insertion)})(); FACT CHECK: We strive for accuracy and fairness. He took another approach and sliced through the knot with his sword, claiming triumph. By signing up for this email, you are agreeing to news, offers, and information from Encyclopaedia Britannica. Alexander was the … In early summer 327 Alexander left Bactria with a reinforced army under a reorganized command. In reconciliation Alexander married her, and the rest of his opponents were either won over or crushed. “I am not afraid of an army of lions led by a sheep; I am afraid of an army of sheep led by a lion.” ― … The event marked a step in Alexander’s progress toward Eastern absolutism, and this growing attitude found its outward expression in his use of Persian royal dress. As it became clear Alexander would win the Battle of Issus, Darius fled with what remained of his troops, leaving his wife and family behind. The fall in the level of the sea was interpreted as a mark of divine favour by Alexander’s flatterers, including the historian Callisthenes. In spring 334 he crossed the Dardanelles, leaving Antipater, who had already faithfully served his father, as his deputy in Europe with over 13,000 men; he himself commanded about 30,000 foot and over 5,000 cavalry, of whom nearly 14,000 were Macedonians and about 7,000 allies sent by the Greek League. After relentless pursuit by Alexander, Bessus’s troops handed Bessus over to Ptolemy, Alexander’s good friend, and he was mutilated and executed. His body, diverted to Egypt by Ptolemy, the later king, was eventually placed in a golden coffin in Alexandria. In 326 B.C., Alexander met King Porus of Paurava at the Hydaspes River. So Alexander led his troops down the Indus River and was severely wounded during a battle with the Malli. Both kings were murdered, Arrhidaeus in 317 and Alexander in 310/309. From Halicarnassus, Alexander headed north to Gordium, home of the fabled Gordian knot, a group of tightly-entwined knots yoked to an ancient wagon. The Thessalians and Greek allies were sent home; henceforward he was waging a purely personal war. "Alexander the Great, his name struck fear into hearts of men! Supposedly, one of those on the rock was a girl named Roxane. Did Alexander the Great Arrange His Father's Murder? In summer 324 Alexander attempted to solve another problem, that of the wandering mercenaries, of whom there were thousands in Asia and Greece, many of them political exiles from their own cities. After rejecting another peace offer from Darius, Alexander set out for Egypt. Alexander Knew How to Crush a Rebellion. In September Alexander too set out along the coast through Gedrosia (modern Baluchistan), but he was soon compelled by mountainous country to turn inland, thus failing in his project to establish food depots for the fleet. Alexander’s march through Gedrosia proved disastrous; waterless desert and shortage of food and fuel caused great suffering, and many, especially women and children, perished in a sudden monsoon flood while encamped in a wadi. While in Babylon, Alexander became ill after a prolonged banquet and drinking bout, and on June 13, 323, he died at age 33. After his death, nearly all the noble Susa marriages dissolved, which shows that the Macedonians despised the idea. From the great pyramids of the Old Kingdom through the military conquests of the New ...read more, The Great Society was an ambitious series of policy initiatives, legislation and programs spearheaded by President Lyndon B. Johnson with the main goals of ending poverty, reducing crime, abolishing inequality and improving the environment. His mother, Sisygambis, was so upset she disowned him and adopted Alexander as her son. While there’s some controversy over whether Bell was the true ...read more, For almost 30 centuries—from its unification around 3100 B.C. Later the incident was to contribute to the story that he was the son of Zeus and, thus, to his “deification.” In spring 331 he returned to Tyre, appointed a Macedonian satrap for Syria, and prepared to advance into Mesopotamia. Alexander the Great became a legend 'mongst mortal men!" He was sidelined at Gaza, however, and forced to endure another lengthy siege. San Jose State University. In 2019, Dr. Katherine Hall of New Zealand’s University of Otago presented the … Crushing the mountain tribe of the Ouxians, he now pressed on over the Zagros range into Persia proper and, successfully turning the Pass of the Persian Gates, held by the satrap Ariobarzanes, he entered Persepolis and Pasargadae. Alexander the Great of Macedon Biography. At Susa Alexander held a feast to celebrate the seizure of the Persian empire, at which, in furtherance of his policy of fusing Macedonians and Persians into one master race, he and 80 of his officers took Persian wives; he and Hephaestion married Darius’s daughters Barsine (also called Stateira) and Drypetis, respectively, and 10,000 of his soldiers with native wives were given generous dowries. Leaving Porus, he then proceeded down the river and into the Indus, with half his forces on shipboard and half marching in three columns down the two banks. There was an open mutiny involving all but the royal bodyguard; but when Alexander dismissed his whole army and enrolled Persians instead, the opposition broke down. In July 331 Alexander was at Thapsacus on the Euphrates. Alexander the Great is one of many biographies aimed at young people written by Jacob Abbott and his brother. Livius.org. His determination to incorporate Persians on equal terms in the army and the administration of the provinces was bitterly resented. The Macedonian army resented Alexander’s attempt to change their culture and many mutinied. He at once executed the princes of Lyncestis, alleged to be behind Philip’s murder, along with all possible rivals and the whole of the faction opposed to him. He would build an empire on the back of his motto, “there is nothing impossible to him who will try.”. Ancient History Encyclopedia. When the Thebans refused to surrender, he made an entry and razed their city to the ground, sparing only temples and Pindar’s house; 6,000 were killed and all survivors sold into slavery. He is also said to have sent an expedition to discover the causes of the flooding of the Nile. In June Alexander fought his last great battle on the left bank of the Hydaspes. How much Alexander knew of India beyond the Hyphasis (probably the modern Beas) is uncertain; there is no conclusive proof that he had heard of the Ganges. But his army encountered resistance in the cities of Miletus, Mylasa and Halicarnassus. During his … His interest in sound technology was deep-rooted and personal, as both his wife and mother were deaf. Still, the visit furthered speculation Alexander was a deity. Recrossing the Hindu Kush, probably by Bamiyan and the Ghorband Valley, Alexander divided his forces. Fordham University. The Sacred Band of Thebes, from Plutarch, Life of Pelopidas. Alexander the Great, King of Macedon from 336 - 323 B.C., may claim the title of the greatest military leader the world has ever known. No heir had been appointed to the throne, and his generals adopted Philip II’s half-witted illegitimate son, Philip Arrhidaeus, and Alexander’s posthumous son by Roxana, Alexander IV, as kings, sharing out the satrapies among themselves, after much bargaining. at age 32. While he is usually referred to as “Alexander the Great,” some people think he should be called “Terrible” instead because of all the wars he fought. in Pella, Macedonia, to King Philip II. In 336 B.C., Alexander’s father Philip was assassinated by his bodyguard Pausanias. His post of chiliarch (grand vizier) was left unfilled. Be on the lookout for your Britannica newsletter to get trusted stories delivered right to your inbox. Crossing the Elburz Mountains to the Caspian, he seized Zadracarta in Hyrcania and received the submission of a group of satraps and Persian notables, some of whom he confirmed in their offices; in a diversion westward, perhaps to modern Āmol, he reduced the Mardi, a mountain people who inhabited the Elburz Mountains. Alexander the Great was an ancient Macedonian ruler and one of history’s greatest military minds who, as King of Macedonia and Persia, established the largest empire the ancient world had ever seen. Philip II was an impressive military man in his own right. In 333 B.C., Alexander and his men encountered a massive Persian army led by King Darius III near the town of Issus in southern Turkey. The army was accompanied by surveyors, engineers, architects, scientists, court officials, and historians; from the outset Alexander seems to have envisaged an unlimited operation. Hugely ambitious, Alexander drew inspiration from the gods Achilles, Heracles, and Dionysus. Increasingly paranoid, Alexander ordered the death of one of his most esteemed generals, Parmenio, in 330 B.C., after Parmenio's son Philotas was convicted of plotting an assassination attempt against Alexander (and also killed). He was an impassioned champion of a strong federal government, and played a key role in defending ...read more, 1. He accomplished things that just about anyone since then hasn’t been able to accomplish. Alexander the Great was one of the most successful military commanders in history, and was undefeated in battle. All went well until they came within striking distance of the Tyrians. Introduction Alexander the Great (also known as Alexander III of Macedon) conquered most of the ancient world in less than ten years. Livius.org. There was much speculation about the cause of death, and the most popular theories claim that he either contracted malaria or typhoid fever or that he was poisoned. At the age of thirteen, he was sent to study with Aristotle–an education that … In Aria he reduced Satibarzanes, who had offered submission only to revolt, and he founded Alexandria of the Arians (modern Herāt). Some tribes surrendered peacefully; others did not. A career politician, he served in both houses of the Georgia legislature before winning a seat in the U.S. House of Representatives in 1843. In winter 334–333 Alexander conquered western Asia Minor, subduing the hill tribes of Lycia and Pisidia, and in spring 333 he advanced along the coastal road to Perga, passing the cliffs of Mount Climax, thanks to a fortunate change of wind. It’s unclear if he died from battle wounds or of old age, but Alexander named the city of Bucephala after him. They crossed the Hellespont, a narrow strait between the Aegean Sea and the Sea of Marmara, and faced Persian and Greek forces at the Granicus River. Alexander (2004) cast and crew credits, including actors, actresses, directors, writers and more. Later in the same year he attacked Oxyartes and the remaining barons who held out in the hills of Paraetacene (modern Tajikistan); volunteers seized the crag on which Oxyartes had his stronghold, and among the captives was his daughter, Roxana. With a good cavalry force Alexander could expect to defeat any Persian army. To gain credibility with the Persians, Alexander took on many Persian customs. He was taught by Aristotle but had famous run-ins with other philosophers. From his accession Alexander had set his mind on the Persian expedition. He developed a life-long love of reading and music. But Alexander had no navy to speak of and Tyre was surrounded by water. There is no reason to assume that his demand had any political background (divine status gave its possessor no particular rights in a Greek city); it was rather a symptom of growing megalomania and emotional instability. While the siege of Tyre was in progress, Darius sent a new offer: he would pay a huge ransom of 10,000 talents for his family and cede all his lands west of the Euphrates. Let us know if you have suggestions to improve this article (requires login). Alexander the Great, also known as Alexander III or Alexander of Macedonia, (born 356 bce, Pella, Macedonia [northwest of Thessaloníki, Greece]—died June 13, 323 bce, Babylon [near Al-Ḥillah, Iraq]), king of Macedonia (336–323 bce), who overthrew the Persian empire, carried Macedonian arms to India, and laid the foundations for the Hellenistic world of territorial kingdoms. Subscribe for fascinating stories connecting the past to the present. READ MORE: Did Alexander the Great Arrange His Father's Murder? The struggle turned into a Persian rout and Darius fled, leaving his family in Alexander’s hands; the women were treated with chivalrous care. Mosaic of Alexander the Great discovered in the House of the Faun, Pompeii, Italy. As the story goes, Alexander took on the challenge but was unable to unravel the knot by hand. There is no basis for the tradition that he turned aside to visit Jerusalem. “I would accept,” Parmenio is reported to have said, “were I Alexander”; “I too,” was the famous retort, “were I Parmenio.” The storming of Tyre in July 332 was Alexander’s greatest military achievement; it was attended with great carnage and the sale of the women and children into slavery. Now We May Know Why. He had grown up to the idea. He also took two more wives for himself. But in pitched battle the striking force was the cavalry, and the core of the army, should the issue still remain undecided after the cavalry charge, was the infantry phalanx, 9,000 strong, armed with 13-foot spears and shields, and the 3,000 men of the royal battalions, the hypaspists. Corrections? In November 332 he reached Egypt. As Mazaeus’s appointment indicated, Alexander’s views on the empire were changing. ...read more, Discover the love, strength and perseverance of three great romances in American history: Bess and Harry Truman, Elizabeth and Robert Browning and Jackie and Rachel Robinson. From Phrada, Alexander pressed on during the winter of 330–329 up the valley of the Helmand River, through Arachosia, and over the mountains past the site of modern Kābul into the country of the Paropamisadae, where he founded Alexandria by the Caucasus. This discontent was now fanned by the arrival of 30,000 native youths who had received a Macedonian military training and by the introduction of Asian peoples from Bactria, Sogdiana, Arachosia, and other parts of the empire into the Companion cavalry; whether Asians had previously served with the Companions is uncertain, but if so they must have formed separate squadrons. Shortly afterward, at Bactra, he attempted to impose the Persian court ceremonial, involving prostration (proskynesis), on the Greeks and Macedonians too, but to them this custom, habitual for Persians entering the king’s presence, implied an act of worship and was intolerable before a human. One event took place at Hydaspes which devastated Alexander: the death of his beloved horse, Bucephalus. When Alexander was 13, Philip called on the great philosopher Aristotle to tutor his son. The vast Eurasian empire that Alexander the Great (356–323 B.C.) It was probably in connection with a general order now sent out to the Greeks to honour Hephaestion as a hero that Alexander linked the demand that he himself should be accorded divine honours. Local opposition led Nearchus to set sail in September (325), and he was held up for three weeks until he could pick up the northeast monsoon in late October. He then laid siege to the heavily fortified island of Tyre in January 332 B.C., after the Tyrians refused him entry. Fed up with Alexander’s new Persian-like persona, a drunk Cleitus continually insulted Alexander and minimized his achievements. In his short life (356–323 BCE) he conquered an enormous range of lands—from Macedonia to Egypt and from Greece to parts of India—and gave a new direction to world history. Suddenly, in Babylon, while busy with plans to improve the irrigation of the Euphrates and to settle the coast of the Persian Gulf, Alexander was taken ill after a prolonged banquet and drinking bout; 10 days later, on June 13, 323, he died in his 33rd year; he had reigned for 12 years and eight months. The Macedonians were less than thrilled with the changes in Alexander and his attempt to be viewed as a deity. This policy of racial fusion brought increasing friction to Alexander’s relations with his Macedonians, who had no sympathy for his changed concept of the empire. Alexander the Great was an ancient Macedonian ruler and one of history’s greatest military minds who, as King of Macedonia and Persia, established the … Alexander had on several occasions encouraged favourable comparison of his own accomplishments with those of Dionysus or Heracles. In the winter of 324 Alexander carried out a savage punitive expedition against the Cossaeans in the hills of Luristan. Alexander was greatly influenced by the philosopher's teachings. After surviving battle after fierce battle, Alexander the Great died in June 323 B.C. In the 2,000 years after his early death, his influence has persisted, military leaders from Caesar to Napoleon studied his … With Bessus out of the way, Alexander had full control of Persia. As the story goes, Alexander fell in love with Roxane on sight. The Macedonian Empire of Alexander the Great. In 14 days Alexander marched 240 miles from Pelion (near modern Korçë, Albania) in Illyria to Thebes. By 323 B.C., Alexander was head of an enormous empire and had recovered from the devastating loss of his friend Hephaestion—who was also reputed to be one of Alexander’s homosexual male lovers. The Death Of Alexander The Great. He planned to lead part of his forces back by land, while the rest in perhaps 100 to 150 ships under the command of Nearchus, a Cretan with naval experience, made a voyage of exploration along the Persian Gulf. When Miletus, encouraged by the proximity of the Persian fleet, resisted, Alexander took it by assault, but, refusing a naval battle, he disbanded his own costly navy and announced that he would “defeat the Persian fleet on land,” by occupying the coastal cities. But another Persian leader, Bessus (also thought to be Darius’s murderer), had also claimed the Persian throne. His death—and the bloody infighting for control that happened afterwards—unraveled the empire he’d fought so hard to create. He turned Macedonia (a region on the northern part of the Greek peninsula) into a force to be reckoned with, and he fantasized about conquering the massive Persian Empire. Alexander then headed south and easily took the city of Sardes. Between 326 and 324 over a third of his satraps were superseded and six were put to death, including the Persian satraps of Persis, Susiana, Carmania, and Paraetacene; three generals in Media, including Cleander, the brother of Coenus (who had died a little earlier), were accused of extortion and summoned to Carmania, where they were arrested, tried, and executed. The period of history from his death to 31 B.C., when his empire folded, would come to be known as the Hellenistic period, from “Hellazein,” which means, “to speak Greek or identify with the Greeks.” Alexander the Great is revered as one of the most powerful and influential leaders the ancient world ever produced. https://www.history.com/topics/ancient-history/alexander-the-great. For more than two centuries, the Achaemenid Empire of Persia ruled the Mediterranean world. Alexander was the son of Philip II and Olympias (daughter of King Neoptolemus of Epirus). The Trumans He first saw her in Sunday school when he was six years old and she was just five. All Rights Reserved. In 336, however, on Philip’s assassination, Alexander, acclaimed by the army, succeeded without opposition. In addition, Persian nobles had been accepted into the royal cavalry bodyguard. In reply to a letter from Darius offering peace, Alexander replied arrogantly, recapitulating the historic wrongs of Greece and demanding unconditional surrender to himself as lord of Asia. In early 324 B.C., Alexander reached the city of Susa in Persia. Now We May Know Why. He ...read more, Alexander Hamilton Stephens (1812-1883) served as vice president of the Confederate States of America during the Civil War (1861-65). His troops were extremely loyal, believing in him throughout all hardships. Aristotle sparked and fostered Alexander’s interest in literature, science, medicine and philosophy. Bessus was now in Bactria raising a national revolt in the eastern satrapies with the usurped title of Great King. Livius.org. He found that his treasurer, Harpalus, evidently fearing punishment for peculation, had absconded with 6,000 mercenaries and 5,000 talents to Greece; arrested in Athens, he escaped and later was murdered in Crete. King Darius III was defeated and killed after the Battle of Gaugamela. He amassed a large fleet, finally breached the city’s walls in July 332 B.C. He had come to envisage a joint ruling people consisting of Macedonians and Persians, and this served to augment the misunderstanding that now arose between him and his people. At Memphis Alexander sacrificed to Apis, the Greek term for Hapi, the sacred Egyptian bull, and was crowned with the traditional double crown of the pharaohs; the native priests were placated and their religion encouraged. 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